Sheridan-Rabideau’s
article is very in-depth and discusses the various forms of activism used
within the GirlZone movement. I am familiar with the book “Reviving Ophelia:
Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls” by Mary Pipher. It’s a very influential
book that utilizes consciousness-raising, which is why I bought it several
years ago. However, I had not gotten around to reading it and I’m grateful for
this article, because it helped me put the book into cultural and historical
perspective. The discussion regarding “Mean Girls,” also called Alpha Girls,
R.M.G. (Really Mean Girls) and Queen Bees, truly hit home for me since I had
been bullied in the past by a female who perfectly fit the description of the
“monied white girl,” who would perpetrate such “relational anger.” I would be
most interested in finding the research article which is referenced in this
case. I found the following sentence, “depicting girls as actors within
situations not of their choosing,” to be particularly poignant as to how I felt
about my own situation (Sheridan-Rabideau, p 43). It is good to finally have a
name for this type of psychological warfare which I had witnessed.
This poster inspired me to create my Elegance of Masculine Beauty project which focuses on the masculine face and figure as aesthetically beautiful. I plan to single-handedly tip this statistics!
In “Constructing
Global Feminism” the issue of Western ideals of feminism being imposed onto
Russian activism is discussed. Russia’s historically complex relationship with
feminism presented itself in the form of the Soviet Union definition of
feminism as the model factory worker who was equal to men in the workplace, but
still had to perform a “second shift” in the domestic sphere after work. Due to
this extra workload imposed on them, many women of the post-Soviet era rejected
feminism outright and adopted the more domestic, dutiful wife role which existed
in the Soviet era (Prof Vaingurt interview).
This rejection of
feminism creates a dilemma for transnational activists traveling to Russia in order to facilitate communication,
workshops, and conferences with NGOs in Russia. Another obstacle is the
question of whether the West is trying to impose its definition of feminism
onto other cultures (Sperling, p 1158). This issue was brought up in “One Step
Global,” where the question of how gay, lesbian, homosexual, and queer
identities are expressed both linguistically and idealistically in various
cultures. For example, Chinese activists use the Chinese term for coming home as opposed to the English
equivalent coming out. This reflects
a cultural difference because Chinese society is structured around familial
relationships rather than individual identities (Garber, p 1).
As a linguist, I
have noticed that the issue pertaining to these linguistic quirks cannot be
overlooked. The mentality of a culture is sometimes reflected in the use of
that culture’s words and idioms. For instance, German is a hyper-logical
language which reflects the precise and literal mentality of the culture. The
word Mittleschmerz (literal
translation: middle pain) refers to the pain which some women experience during
the mid-menstrual cycle at the time of ovulation. Mittleschmerz is the same
word utilized in the English language. Consciousness-raising and education of
these cultural and linguistic nuances would be invaluable transnational
activism. The best method would be to learn the language of the given culture
which one wishes to become involved in; that would provide the best tools
necessary to facilitate communication, foster understanding, and earn respect
within that environment.
It
is important to keep in mind that terms referring to queer identities are,
historical speaking, only recent social constructs. What may be referred to as queer (i.e. gay, lesbian, bisexual,
transsexual, intersex, non-gender conforming individuals) at our current point
in history, has gone through many incarnations gone by many names throughout
the course of history and in various cultures. This is alluded to by Ruth
Vanita in her book “Queering India” in which she states that queer theorists
are cautious not to use terms like homosexual
when referring to earlier eras in Euro-American history or non-Western parts of
the world (Garber, p 3).
The
concept of questioning queer identities is echoed in how the Russian women
activists questioned the term feminism.
The article made it clear that the Russian participants in the conferences had
a different definition of the term feminism
to that of the American participants’ (Sperling, p 1163).
A pivotal point to
keep in mind is the economic conditions and infrastructure that exists within a
country. Basic survival needs, such as food and employment, were brought up as
the primary concerns of female activists in Russia. It is hard for Russians to
concentrate on issues which the American activists wanted to address, such as
gay rights: these topics were deemed unimportant to the Russian activists who
lived hand-to-mouth in an economically unstable oligarchy (ibid., p 1175).
Gorkemli brought
up the concept of activism in Turkey
among gay and lesbian individuals are closeted in their lives but can come out
on the Internet. Turkish activists initiated a campaign called “coming out of
the Internet” and thus creating an alternative setting which encouraged political
and grassroots organizing to combat the traditional media, mainly print and
television, which continued to perpetuate gender stereotypes and
hetero-normative behaviour. There is a common thread with Sperling’s article:
Gorkemli discusses how homosexuality and lesbianism were perceived by some as
being a social construct of the West and as being “imported” into Turkey as a
neo-colonial imperialistic form of imposing the ideals of another culture onto
their society (Gorkemli, p 83).
Bunch discussed
how women’s rights are human rights issues because women suffer
disproportionately from poverty due to the fact that women are consistently
paid less than men. This stacks the cards against women since they are, more
often than not, the single parents supporting children. This, in turn,
increases the number of children living in poverty. The fact that women are
disproportionately victims of violent crime, that including infanticide (which
is at an all-time high at this point), illustrates to what extent women are
treated inhumanly. The fact that huge numbers of women in various countries are
forced to live with a hand-to-mouth existence of a daily basis constitutes a
human rights violation (Bunch, p 289). The issues of economic conditions and
infrastructure were not brought up in any of the other articles, despite the
fact that these relevant points which should be taken to consideration.
This only
illustrates how sensitive and careful should be in regard to transnational
feminism and activism. One should not lose sight of the nuances of language,
national mentality, and history of another culture. It would be advisable to
ask activists in other countries “what is it you need” as opposed to dictating
what they should do (ibid., p 1176).
Post Script:
Garber discusses
how the “Foucauldian queer narrative places the birth of the homosexual in
1870.” This is in reference to Foucault’s article “The History of Sexuality
volume 1, 1870 - Birth of Homosexuality” (Foucault, p 1). I discovered an
inconsistency in this statement, which I shall explain in the following: During
the late 1800s, a small group of German physicians turned to sex research,
while others became early gay rights activists (to overturn Paragraph 175, the
Prussian anti-sodomy law of 1871). The German-Hungarian writer, Karoly Maria
Kertbeny (a.k.a. Karl Maria Benkert, 1824 – 1882) coined the terms homosexuality and heterosexuality in a letter he wrote in 1868 to Carl Westphal (1833
– 1890). Carl Westphal was a physician who wrote an article in the “Archiv fűr
Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten” (Archive of Psychiatry und Nerve Diseases)
asking for the scientific study of socially stigmatized sexual behavior. Bullough’s book, “Science in the Bedroom: A
History of Sex Research” gives the date of this article as having been written
in 1869 (Bullough, p 38). The reference that Foucault uses in his book only
gives a footnote to the date which states “Carl Westphal, “Archiv fűr Neurologie
1870” (Foucault, p 1). This would make it a different archive than the one
which Bullough lists, thus putting into question the date of when the social
construct of homosexuality first
appeared in scientific literature. I’m intrigued by this discrepancy and will
look into it in more detail during the summer break.
Bibliography
Bullough, Vern. Science
in the Bedroom: A History of Sex Research. New York: Basic
Books,
1994.
Bunch,
C., women’s rights as human rights: toward a vision of human rights. Human
rights quarterly, 12, 286-298. http://www.jstor.org/stable/762486
accessed 9 May, 2013
Gorkemli, S.,
“Coming Out of the Internet: Lesbian and Gay Activism and the Internet as a
‘digital closet’ in Turkey,”
Journal of Middle East Women Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3, Fall 2012
Prof. Vaingurt,
Associate Professor, Acting Associate Director, School
of Literatures, Cultural Studies &
Linguistics; area of specialization: 20th-century Russian literature
and culture, University of Illinois at Chicago,
interview, 1 April 2013
Sperling, V.,
Ferree, M. M., & Risman, B., Constructing Global Feminism: Transnational
Advocacy Networks and Russian Women’s Activism, Signs, 26, 1155-1186
Community Coalitions - creating organizations which represent a multitude of community
groups and bring together the collective resources of these groups in order to
reach a common goal which would be difficult for the individual groups to reach
on their own. The Chicago Abused Women’s Coalition formed in response to rising
awareness of the high incidence of battered wives in America. It consisted of the
Salvation Army Emergency Lodge, the Pacific Garden Mission - Unshackled, and
the Gospel League Shelter (Schechter, p 55). This is a valid strategy of change
because of its utilization of strength in resources, and strength in
membership, thus increasing its influence in a given movement.
Strengths: the strength of community
coalitions is in the fact that it is a multitude of smaller groups fighting for
a greater cause. The larger the coalition the more influence it may have both
legislatively as well as geographically.
Weaknesses: Some of the members of these
coalitions may have hidden agendas, as was the case with the Pacific Garden
Mission -Unshackled and the Gospel League Shelter, which both required women to
attend Bible classes, plus imposing religion on the women who seek the services
(ibid.).
Consciousness-raising - increasing awareness, bringing a
new understanding of issues, both on the political level and a personal level.
The 1970s term “the Personal is Political” exemplifies how personal aspects
within one’s life, such as wage equality, are political issues. This is a valid
strategy of change, and to be used under the premise that the general public is
unaware of these issues. If the public is already aware of these issues, then
it would be logical to onto the next step for example social action.
Examples of consciousness-raising
would be circulating petitions, utilizing such websites as change.org for such
a purpose, or the use of other social media. It can be combined with other
forms of spreading the word such as distributing flyers, posters, etc. This
strategy was used to great effect during the organization of the Montgomery bus boycott in
1955 to 1956 to spread the word of the planned boycott via the use of phone
trees, flyers, and discussion throughout local churches (Robinson, p 55).
Strengths: the strength of consciousness
raising lies in its ability to quickly get the word out and attract attention
(often times via the media) to a given issue and in its ability to mobilize
people for given cause.
Weaknesses: An obvious weakness of consciousness-raising
is that the same media which pays attention to it can also contort it in order
to make the activists appear extremist, irrational, disorganized, etc, thus
running the risk of potentially hurting the movement.
Social Action - constructive conflict, in
particular confronting and challenging government and other figures in
positions of authority. This enables disenfranchised populations to empower
themselves by organizing around a common goal utilizing such things as
protests, boycotts, petitions, etc. This is a valid strategy of change if the
conditions are right within a given society. In the case of the social climate
in Lithuania,
which I will go into in more detail in section B, this is a more complex and
problematic dilemma.
An example of this would be: Daniel
Sotomayor, the leader of the Chicago branch of ACT UP, who in the 1980s,
confronted Mayor Richard Daley with a banner stating “Daley, tell the truth
about AIDS” thus illustrating how social action can be used to confront figures
of authority. Another fine example is that of Alice Paul, who was fearless in
her fight for the women’s right to vote and got arrested numerous times and
placed in solitary confinement.
Strengths: the strengths of this strategy are
that they bring attention to social issues which may otherwise get swept under
the rug by the media. The media is drawn to drama, therefore, this type of
extreme behaviour would draw media attention, thus giving free publicity to the
movement.
Weaknesses: D’Emilio demonstrates that the growing
visibility of gays and lesbians in the public eye also increased the risk of
violence being perpetrated against them. This, in turn, would necessitate yet
one more issue regarding rights which would need to be addressed utilizing a
strategy of change, in this particular case, the Hate Crime Statistics Act (D’Emilio,
The World Turned, p 107).
Alternative Settings - would entail the creation of spaces
as alternatives to mainstream settings. Mainstream settings would include but
are not limited to the following: churches, schools, and other such
institutions which would utilize a hierarchical system of administration. An
example of alternative settings would be the formation of LGBTQ community
centers throughout the country and throughout the world. LGBTQ community
centers provide a myriad of activities, support groups, counseling services,
safe spaces for LGBTQ youth in need, and other services. This is a valid
strategy of change as long as it is not taken too far, as was the case in Berlin in the late 80s
early 90s (see “weaknesses”).
Strengths: one of the strengths of alternative
settings is that it creates a safe space for disenfranchised individuals in a community
where they can feel free to bring up issues and concerns which otherwise may
harm them in more mainstream settings.
Weaknesses: one of the weaknesses of
alternative settings would be the question of staffing. If it is staffed by
volunteers then it would be difficult to keep everyone dedicated and focused.
Some volunteers may just lose interest over time, thus requiring the search for
someone to replace that person as well as the training of the new individual.
Another weakness would be the fact that some alternative settings outlive their
usefulness, as was the case with the Van Dykes, who traveled throughout this
the country as a utopian separatist group. They were unable to sustain a
nomadic lifestyle in the long run due to a combination of infighting, the price
of essentials such as gas, food, etc. (Levy, p 4). Another weakness of this
strategy is when it is taken too far. This was the case with the lesbian
feminist movements in Berlin,
which had female space only cafés, restaurants, clubs, and community center.
This imposed their philosophy of separatism onto the community at large,
without giving individuals the option of an alternative to “their alternative.”
Policy, Research and Advocacy - conducting research which would
inform and influence government, public policy, laws etc. An example of this
strategy is utilized by the NGLTF (National Gay and Lesbian Task Force), an
organization which works tirelessly to lift bans and prohibitions against homosexuality.
The NGLTF worked with allies in various fields of mental health in order to
remove homosexuality from the list of mental disorders in the DSM (Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual) published by the American Psychiatric Association. This
was a major leap forward because up until that point, homosexual behaviour was
treated as a mental condition which could be “cured.” (UCDavis). This is a
valid strategy of change because it involves empirical method of research,
logic, and legislative law in order to implement change.
Strengths: one of the strengths of this
strategy is that it helps with “leaping” forward in bold moves, as described in
the “leaping and creeping” stages of social movements (D’Emilio, class lecture).
Another advantage of this strategy is that the activism and the resulting
“leaps” make it to the national (and sometimes international) news, thus
setting a precedent for the same issues in other states and, hopefully, other
countries.
Weaknesses: the weakness of research, policy,
and advocacy is that it can only work under certain social conditions. Case in
point, the current social climate within Lithuania regarding LGBT rights
would not be conducive for utilizing research, policy, and advocacy because the
subject of homosexuality is such a new concept to the general population that
first one must explain what homosexuality is. Most of the research, policy, and
advocacy on behalf of LGBT individuals within Lithuania
are conducted outside of the country, primarily in other European Union countries
such as England and Germany. This
is due to the fact that, at this point in time, the primary concern of the LGBT
community is safety. The economic conditions within Lithuania
have consistently grown worse since the country gained its independence from
the Soviet Union in 1990. Xenophobia,
homophobia, sexism, and other forms of hate and intolerance are sadly
commonplace within the country. Members of the LGBT community within Lithuania have
the advantage of being citizens of the European Union which grants them
protection against discrimination. This, however, does not afford them
protection under Lithuanian law. Many Lithuanian LGBT individuals fear for
their lives, for their safety, for their jobs, etc. At this juncture, the LGBT
movement in Lithuania is in
a very early stage of its development and, sadly, cannot afford most of the
luxuries enjoyed by the LGBT movement in America (European Parliament
Intergroup on LGBT rights). The Lithuanian language doesn’t even have a word
for homosexuality, and the subject was never discussed in Lithuanian circles
during my lifetime before now. Some Lithuanians believe that homosexuality is a
concept introduced into Lithuania
the Russians and Putin’s administration. This only demonstrates exactly how
much work lies ahead of us.
B. Compare
and Contrast Strategies
“The Times, They are a Changing”
As time changes, so do the needs of a
community as well as the needs of a particular movement. ACT UP (AIDS Coalition
to Unleash Power) arose in response to the AIDS crisis. The slogan of ACT UP,
“Silence = Death” emboldened many members of the community to come out of the
closet and fight for the cause. This was when Social Action took center stage.
Different eras call for different strategies or a combination of different
strategies.
The face of social activism changed
in America
during the “99%” protests, when mainstream media portrayed an image of the
protesters as only consisting of students and youth “with nothing better to do”
and no clear agenda. In reality, these protesters represented a wide spectrum
of individuals: middle-aged parents, teachers, businessmen, and other
individuals of all ages were well represented in the crowd. Since mainstream
media in America is owned by just a handful of wealthy individuals, such as
Rupert Murdoch, who hope to protect their own self interests, this becomes an
increasingly challenging hurdle to overcome when it comes to media depictions
of protests and activism. In this day and age, a less harmful strategy may be
well advised. I believe that a combination of Consciousness-raising via the
Internet and social media, such as Facebook, Twitter and the use of alternative
media (TV, radio, websites, news, etc) would be more logical and effective in
this modern era. An example of an alternative TV station would be LinkTV, which
broadcasts “Democracy Now!” a news and current events program with a more
socialist and global perspective, along with TV shows, films, documentaries
from around the world (LinkTV). It would be a more logical and effective
alternative to seek out these other routes. Social activism in the form of
online petitions and letters to elected officials is an unfiltered form of
getting the word out and being active.
The process of transforming an
organization from a handful of nonhierarchical active individuals, to a larger,
more complex organization, presents its own set of challenges. One of the main
problems facing the growth of an organization would be successful navigation
from one stage to another. The possibility that members would disagree is high
when taking all the variables into account: the direction the organization
should go, added responsibilities of that organization, as well as the
structure of the leadership, etc. Jo Freeman wrote an essay on this topic in
1973 entitled “The Tyranny of Structurelessness” in which she discussed the
disadvantage of veiled hierarchies which can be inherent in an egalitarian
system within an organization. As an organization grows it may have to walk a
tightrope between how it maintains an egalitarian system and how it continues
to provide a given service to the community. For example, how can a shelter for
battered women tend to the needs of these women while, at the same time,
expanding its staff building the organization further? The operative question to
ask would it still function efficiently in an orderly manner. Although an
egalitarian system may function well with smaller organizations, it could prove
problematic as more individuals join into the equation (Riger, 282). Thus, the
alternative settings approach can proof to have its difficulties.
Alternative settings can have
commonalities with community coalitions in the sense that as they grow they
become more complex and have to navigate around the turbulent waters of hidden
agendas of individuals/organizations. Infighting is not uncommon in both
alternative settings and community coalitions, as organizational/hierarchical
changes occur within these two settings. It is hard to guarantee the longevity of
a group which utilizes an alternative setting structure because it may be
dependent on funding from within, and may collapse if the funding, from grants,
fundraising, etc dry out. It is important for an alternative setting to have a
set of standards regarding who the accept funding from. Government may attempt
to step in by offering funding for certain services, but then these
organizations may have to abide by the government’s rules in order to continue
receiving these funds. That was the dilemma faced by the Women’s HealthCenter
when the government’s practice of selective funding limited the kind of
services the clinic could provide (Morgen, p 203).
Individuals may choose to participate
in any of the five strategies depending on what their personal philosophy and
feelings are on a given issue. That is not to be confused with collective
action in the form of what community coalitions and other such groups may
advocate. In that sense the LGBT movement
in the LGBT community would be two
different things. The LGBT movement would
imply some form of activism whereas the LGBT community simply refers to the collective members of the community,
regardless whether they are activists or not. I personally know quite a few members
of the LGBT community who are not politically active in any way for any cause. It
would be a flaw in logic to assume that the LGBT movement for the right to get
married (gay marriage, for example, as opposed to trans-, or intersex- marriage),
would reflect the opinion of every member in the LGBT community. Therefore, any strategy for change, be it women’s
rights, immigration rights, etc., is not representative of the entire population.
The wide spectrum of organizations,
such as Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund, and the HowardBrownHealthCenter,
for example, work in conjunction with each other within the LGBT community to
fight for the rights and well-being of individuals with AIDS. Lambda Legal, as
well as the Hate Crimes Statistics Act, and the Americans with Disabilities Act
all utilized policy, research, and advocacy as a strategy for change, and all
thoughts on a national level to pass legislation to help protect people with
HIV from discrimination. During the leaping phase, more radical strategies for
change would be utilized: social action, for example, in the form of protests
to draw attention to an issue: and, alternative settings, which would break the
hierarchy inherent in the system by establishing a more egalitarian, form of
governing/organizing. In the creeping phase, dialogue and negotiation would be
the predominant philosophy utilized for change (D’Emilio, Cycles of Change, p
91).
In closing, I would like to assert
that all of these five strategies are logical and beneficial, although it is of
the utmost importance to assess the social/political environment, as well as
the advantages and disadvantages of each one of these strategies before
deciding on how to proceed with a given movement. Different cultures have
different mentalities and therefore different understandings (or misunderstandings)
about a given issue. These differences need to be taken into consideration
before taking the next step for change.
Bibliography
D’Emilio, John, Cycles of Change,
Questions of Strategy: the Gay Lesbian Movement after 50 Years
D’Emilio, John, The World Turned:
Essays on Gay History, Politics, and Culture, Duke University Press, Durham, 2002
Morgen, Sandra, the Dynamics of
Cooptation in a Feminist Health Clinic, Social Science and Medicine, Vol.
23, No. 2, p 201 – 210, 1986
Riger, Stephanie, Challenges of
Success: Stages of Growth in Feminist Organizations, Feminist Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2, Women’s Agency: Empowerment and
the Limits of Resistance. (Summer, 1994), p 275 – 300
Robinson, Jo Ann Gibson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women who Started It: the
memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, University
of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1987
Schechter, S., Women and Male Violence:
the Visions and Struggles of the Battered Women’s Shelter Movement, South
End Press, 1982
Despite
the fact that the history of the sex education movement in America started in the late 19th
century, the general public in America
is still rather illiterate on sexual issues. Sexual illiteracy defined as
“either not knowing the facts or being misinformed about a range of sexual
topics, including AIDS, contraception, homosexuality, erection problems,
infidelity, and menopause” (Reinisch, p 1). The Kinsey Institute New Report on Sex was published in 1990 in
response to the results of the Kinsey Institute/Roper Organization National Sex
Knowledge Survey which demonstrated that 55% of the 1974 survey participants
received an F grade at the end of the study (ibid., p 2). This book is a 540
page question-and-answer book designed to educate and raise awareness of a
variety of issues pertaining to human sexuality including, but not limited to,
anatomy, attraction, hormones, puberty, disability, parenthood, contraception,
health, SDIs, etc.
Feminist activism can be utilized to add
perspective and critical analysis to issues regarding sex education. The
current argument that American sex education finds itself in the debate over the
nonsensical “abstinence only” approach which the religious right puts forth. I believe that celibacy is a personal
decision that neither government nor religion should play a role in. Although
one can choose celibacy, that shouldn’t excuse ignorance on issues pertaining
to sexuality, therefore, those who choose to be sexually active have even less
excuse for being ignorant. “Abstinence only” education only perpetuates
ignorance on sexual issues.
“Abstinence
only” education came to the fore during the Reagan Administration, when Surgeon
General C. Everett Koop attempted to get his AIDS report endorsed by the White
House staff. Koop continually encountered opposition from Gary Bauer, Reagan’s
chief advisor on domestic policy. According to Koop, Bauer stated, “the nation
was facing the problem of AIDS simply because it had abandoned traditional
morality, and it would not get out of the situation until we returned to that
morality” (Melody, p 208). This recurring theme of “traditional morality” still
continues to play in legislative and governmental policies pertaining to
everything from sex education, and abortion/women’s health issues, to gay
rights and funding for research in human sexuality.
Sex education in the late 1800s
Although
“marriage manuals” (aka “marriage guides”) were available in that era in
history, most of them were medically inaccurate, only advocated sex within the
context of marriage, and celibacy outside of marriage. Masturbation was viewed
as unhealthy, as presented in the Bible pertaining to Onan committing a sin by
spilling his seed; seed which should always be used in the act of procreation
(Melody, p 235).
An
early pioneer of sexual education was John Humphrey Noyes (1811 – 1886), who in
1848 founded the Oneida Community, a utopian settlement in upstate New York which lasted
until 1881. The Oneida Community, which was briefly mentioned in the Levy
article, is an intriguing case study of an alternative setting and deserves
closer inspection (Levy, p 1). It was a religious commune, an alternative
setting for Noyes and his followers; they practiced open marriage for which he
coined the term “free love.” His wife, Harriet Maria Worden, gave birth five
times, with only one child surviving. John promised her never to put either one
of them through that ordeal again. This was the starting point of his natural male
birth control method which utilized the contraction of the puboccygeus muscle (a.k.a.
pc muscle, the same muscle used for Kegel exercises in women) in order to
experience orgasm without ejaculation: he called this method, “Male
Continence.” Word of his method spread quickly and became so popular, that he
received letters from all over America
asking for information about it. This prompted him to publish the short book,
“Male Continence” in 1872 (Noyes). The fact that Noyes discussed birth control
as the responsibility of the male is groundbreaking even by today’s standards:
modern-day discussions on birth control still circulate around the woman’s
responsibility. Noyes' short book can be found posted at the Syracuse University Library website . Here's the link Male Continence
Noyes’
book utilized consciousness-raising: it was being transported via the postal
system and sold throughout the country. This, alas, was short-lived as just one
year later, in 1873; the implementation of the Comstock laws took effect, which
prohibited the distribution of “obscene” materials via the mail. What was
deemed “obscene” was rather vague; artwork, novels, scientific and medical
information on birth control were confiscated and those distributing these
items were often arrested and sent to jail (Brown, p 2).
Sex education in
the early 1900s mainly focused on educating the public regarding “social
diseases” (i.e. diseases which would affect family life in society as a whole).
This is the time when discussion of venereal diseases first became part of an
organized movement of education. This education was to be handled by private
agencies as opposed to schools. The “Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis”
was founded in 1905 in New York City
and the “American Federation for Sex Hygiene” as well as the “American
Vigilance Association” was founded in 1912. All three groups addressed
sexuality from hygienic standpoint and were especially concerned with
prostitution as a “social vice.” The “Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis”
declared the aim “to promote the appreciation of the sacredness of human sexual
relations, and thereby to minimize the moral and physical evils resulting from
ignorance and vice” (ibid. p 3).
This emphasis on
the betterment of society was part of the larger Progressivism movement which
started in the late 1900s and lasted until the 1920s. Progressivism was a grassroots
social reaction to the concentration of power and wealth in the hands of the industrial
elite. The goals of the movement were broad and included, but were not limited
to: reforming labor conditions, voting rights, immigration policies, tax
issues, women’s voting rights, and to rein
in the abuses of big business from the so-called “gilded age.” Under presidents
like Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, the movement initiated far-reaching
reforms, and addressed some of the most egregious inequalities and violations
of civil protections in American society. The founding of Jane Addam’s Hull
House was part of the progressive era, which acted as an alternative setting
for meetings and social change, as well as a venue for consciousness-raising
within the community covering various issues including birth control and sex
education (Link, p 79).
During
the early 1900s, sex education wasn’t comprehensive, it was broken down into
various different aspects such as, medical (hygiene, disease), marriage manuals
(which only covers the bare minimum sex info for young married couples), and
birth control information. Under the Comstock laws all of these were deemed
obscene and confiscated (Vostral, p 121).
One
of the most prominent activists to fight the repressive Comstock laws was
Margaret Sanger (1879 – 1966) who spearheaded the grassroots birth control
movement. She was a nurse in the Lower East Side of Manhattan (just across the
river from Hoboken).
She had witnessed the spread of preventable diseases due to malnutrition and
poor living conditions, as well as watching women die from self-induced
abortions. She published pamphlets with information on birth control methods in
hopes of raising consciousness and, as a result, was arrested and charged with
violating postal obscenity laws. The media attention to her arrests resulted in
promoting her cause, thus “making the private political”. Sanger coined the
term “birth control” and founded the American Birth Control League (which
became Planned Parenthood in 1942) (Steinem).
The
first victory for Margaret Sanger was in 1936, when the court ruled in favor of
the right to distribute pamphlets on birth control as well as birth control
devices via the postal system. The presiding judge ordered “a sweeping liberalization
of federal Comstock laws, ruling that contemporary data on the damages of
unplanned pregnancy and the benefits of contraception meant that contraceptive
devices and birth control could no longer be classified as obscene” (Planned
Parenthood website).Although this applied
only to New York, Vermont,
and Connecticut,
it wasn’t until the 1960s that the other states caught up and allowed married
couples to obtain birth control through their physicians (Ibid).
The
Rockefeller Foundation was instrumental in early sex research and education. In
1921, it funded the Committee for Research in Problems of Sex, which sponsored
studies spanning such diverse topics as illegitimacy, prostitution, abortion,
and sexual practice of regular citizens (Cocks, p 48). The foundation also
helped Sanger fund the first birth control clinic in America, as well as funding
research into the chemical composition of spermicides (Bullough, p 135).
Even early cinema
played its part in educating the public and raising consciousness. Lois Weber
(1881 – 1939), one of the few female directors of that era, directed “Where Are
My Children?”, a film which candidly discusses abortion and birth control.
Weber was a supporter of Margaret Sanger and birth control; she made this film in
order to raise consciousness and open up the discussion for the topics (Weber).
Charlie Chaplin’s film, “The Kid” from 1921, made a bold criticism of societal
stigmatization of unwed motherhood in its opening scene. Edna Purviance’s
character walks out of a charity hospital with her newborn baby as the title
card reads “the woman - whose sin was motherhood” (Chaplin). The issue of children
born out of wedlock was a taboo subject in society at that time: Chaplin
humanized Purviance’s character, and in so doing, he set the standard for
consciousness-raising in film form.
Walt Disney
produced a short animated film educating young girls about the menstrual cycle
entitled, “The Story of Menstruation” which was a 10 minute animated short
produced in 1946. It was shown in healthcare classes at schools; it was even
awarded the Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval. A gynecologist was hired to
ensure that it was anatomically and medically accurate. The film desexualized
menstruation portrayed it in a framework of hygiene: “Bleeding meant an
introduction to adulthood, not a participation in it” (Vostral, p 122).
Hull House involvement in Birth Control Movement
I found an
intriguing document in the Special Collections of UIC Library: it was a five
page text recording the minutes of a meeting of the Birth Control Conference of
the Chicago Woman’s Aid. The conference was held Thursday, December 5, 1929. It
was found in box 15,
folder 135 of Chicago Women’s Aid Records. It mentions Dr. Rachelle Yarros and
Dr. Bacon as prominent activists in the birth control movement. Dr. Yarros was
affiliated with Hull House and was a strong advocate of birth control in Chicago in the early
1900s.
The following points were made in
the document:
The Comstock Law of 1879
categorized the dissemination of information on birth control as an obscenity.
Half the states have enacted such obstructive laws, and in so doing, no medical
textbook which contained information of birth control could be mailed in America without
the threat of prosecution. There was only one medical school which they were
aware of that educated to its students on contraception.
Legal, medical,
sociological, and ethical paragraphs were given as logical reasons for birth
control. A case was made for research in methods of contraception. War, famine,
and disease as a result of overpopulation were addressed. There is a paragraph
alluding to Eugenics, in which the case was made for the possible compulsory
sterilization of “unfit” individuals. “The fact that some of the most unfit
class of all – diseased and defective and parasitic – will not use
contraceptive information or cannot be taught it, is a grave danger to the
race” (p 3). This is a chilling
statement which is reminiscent of totalitarian ideology, such as the Nazis.
The statement that
“the mother of a growing family is presumably more valuable than one more child
and should not be sacrificed for such” (Ibid) is a relevant question which is
still being brought up today in political discussions regarding whether a women
should get an abortion if it would save her life.
The most striking
part of this document was the following quote: “We as men believe that if we
had to undergo sickness, disfigurement, limitation of activities, discomfort,
pain, danger, and sometimes death for the birth of a child, we would insist
that it was our absolute right to choose our own time for the process.
Therefore, we believe this an essential and absolute right of women and
encourage them to claim such right” (Ibid). This is followed by the signing of
the document by eighteen men, many of whom were doctors. To have so many men
make such a strong and passionate statement is truly significant. It speaks
volumes about how women were simply expected to be mothers and not concern
themselves with the health risks involved in pregnancy. It is notable, however,
that no females signed this declaration.
This paper is
representative of other items in the collection because it addressed how
contraception was viewed in its day. The document mentioned that the American
Birth Control League received five thousand letters in one year asking for
information on birth control. Despite the public outcry for such information,
the Comstock Laws still held doctors and patients alike captive for fear of
fines and imprisonment.
Ben Reitman was
the lover of Emma Goldman and they both worked tirelessly to promote birth
control. Reitman was nicknamed “the Hobo Doctor” because of his work with the
downtrodden of society; the poor, the immigrants, prostitutes, hobos, etc. In
1916, the couple was arrested for endorsing birth control. Reitman served a six
month sentence in jail, after which, the romantic relationship with Goldman
ended (Reitman papers, 1).
This
document is relevant because it reveals the sad state of institutionalized
ignorance on the subject of sex education and birth control in America. The
battle for women’s rights over their own bodies has a long standing tradition
in American history. The struggle wages on in today’s political arena.
Kinsey’s Role in Sex Education and Consciousness-Raising
Alfred
Kinsey played a major role in the consciousness-raising of issues pertaining to
sexuality. His research in human sexual behavior was groundbreaking not only in
the depth and scope of the subjects he covered, but also in the fact that he
set the stage educating the public by publishing his research findings.
He
didn’t intend to be a sex researcher, but fate called him to task. It all
started when the Surgeon General, Thomas Parran, asked for nationwide testing
due to a rise in syphilis rates. In response, IndianaUniversity’s student paper, the Daily
Student, published an article on February 15, 1938 calling for “compulsory
Wasserman tests for all Indiana
students” (Jones, p 318). Students started writing to the paper with complaints
about the sorry state of sex education at the university. The
consciousness-raising of the students prompted Kinsey to volunteer in developing
a class on sex and marriage. He taught the non-credit marriage course to
married couples and seniors and it was an instant success (ibid. p 327). Thus,
Kinsey used consciousness-raising in a university setting.
Kinsey
offered advice to students who approached him with questions concerning
sexuality. He started collecting the sexual histories of his students and found
that human sexual behavior exhibited diverse variation, echoing the variation
he observed in his studies of the physical characteristics of gall wasps. He
continued collecting sexual histories, ranging from that of the faculty to the
groundskeepers on campus (American Experience).
Kinsey’s work was
not without detractors. Some of the faculty pressured the university president,
Herman Wells, to remove Kinsey from the marriage course. Wells, who supported
Kinsey’s work, decided to give Kinsey an ultimatum: choose between continuing
the research and continuing to teach the course. In 1940, Kinsey chose the
research (American Experience).
Sexual
Behavior in the Human Male
Kinsey continued collecting sexual
histories and in 1941, he acquired a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to
fund his sex research. Between 1941 and 1946, he assembled his research staff:
Clyde Martin (1918 - ), Wardell Pomeroy (1913 – 2001), and
Paul Gebhard (1917 - ). Kinsey and his team constructed a survey containing
about 300 questions. The first set of questions were demographic (age,
religious background, work, etc), and the remaining questions investigated a
wide variety of sexual activity. In the questionnaire, sex was defined as to the point of ejaculation. First the
team questioned locals, then they traveled the country and questioned over
5,300 males (Biography). The resulting book, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, was published in 1948 and sold about
500,000 copies and was an instant success (American Experience).
The
resulting data shattered the way America perceived itself. Kinsey
reported that more than 90% of American males masturbated, 85% have had
premarital intercourse, 70% had patronized a prostitute at least once in their
lives, almost 60% have had oral sex, and 30% to 45% had engaged in extramarital
intercourse. What was most shocking, however, was that 37% of those interviewed
reported to have engaged in homosexual activity at some point in their lives
(Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin, p 650). The book was a huge success and hit the
best-sellers list, thus propelling Kinsey to the iconic status of being a
household name. This form of consciousness-raising on the subject of sexuality
was unprecedented; the fact that he not only mentioned homosexuality but gave
statistics on it thus kick-starting the gay rights movement (leaping) by
helping individuals understand that they were not alone, (D’Emilio, p 80).
Sexual Behavior in
the Human Female
Kinsey’s
work collecting sexual histories continued and in 1947, he established the
Institute for Sex Research at IndianaUniversity. In 1953,
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female was published, coincidentally; the first
issue of Playboy came out that same year. 5,940 women were interviewed. It sold
over 200,000 copies in the first two months and revealed that more than 90% of
females had indulged in sexual petting, 66% had sexual dreams, 62% had
masturbated, 50% have had premarital sex, 19% had engaged in homosexual
activity, 14 % have had multiple orgasms, and 26% had had extramarital sexual
encounters (Kinsey et al 299).
This data shocked
the nation. The image of a wholesome, puritanical society was forever
shattered. Churches and religious groups were up in arms. Billy Graham (1918 -
) published a pamphlet stating, "It is
impossible to estimate the damage this book will do to the already
deteriorating morals of America.
Doctor Kinsey's report shows itself to be completely lopsided and unscientific
when it says that seven out of ten women who had pre-marital affairs had
no regrets. He certainly could not have interviewed any of the millions of
born-again Christian women in this country who put the highest price on virtue,
decency and modesty” (Billy Graham).
Kinsey and the McCarthy Era
It
wasn’t long before the media attacked Kinsey’s books as being a threat to
American family values, thus, in their eyes, making a Communist takeover of America
possible. The Indianapolis Times ran the headline, “‘Kinseyism’ Aids Reds”
(American Experience). Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908 – 1957) from Wisconsin requested the
Carnegie, Rand, and Ford Foundations to appear in front of the House
Investigations Committee in order to justify their grants and ensure that the
Communists hadn’t infiltrated their organizations. The witch-hunt didn’t end
there, the State Department fired hundreds of employees whom they suspected
were gay (Jones 630). J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the F.B.I., (1895 – 1972)
maintained a file on Kinsey. Once the Rockefeller Foundation was called
forward, B. Carroll Reese (1889 – 1961), who lead the Senate Special Committee
on Tax Exempt Foundations, condemned Kinsey’s work. As a result, the
Rockefeller Foundation cut Kinsey’s funding in 1954 (American Experience).
Kinsey had in
effect been censored. His dreams of completing his research and collecting
100,000 interviews for further volumes on the study of human sexuality were
shattered. He planned on publishing a book on the relationship of arts to
sexual behavior, which looked into how sexual history of individuals (i.e.
their love maps) translated into their work as artists. This work never got
published. Two other books which he was working on were “Pregnancy, Birth and
Abortion” published in 1958, and the other entitled “Sex Offenders: An Analysis
of Types” published in 1967. These books were published by his surviving fellow
researchers Paul Gebhard and Wardell Pomeroy (interview, Kinsey Institute). The
censoring of Kinsey demonstrates that sex education and research has frequently
fallen victim to totalitarian ideologies of the authoritarian political
agendas.
Kinsey’s Legacy in
Consciousness-Raising and Research lives on
In 1982, The Kinsey Institute officially changed its name to
The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction. The Kinsey
Institute continues to conduct research in various aspects of human sexuality.
Alfred Kinsey’s research asked what
humans do, the Institute now asks why
humans do it. Current questions regarding human sexuality pertain to
neurochemistry, hormones, mood, psychology of relationships and pairbonding,
what effects partner choices, etc.
KinseyConfidential.org
is a site for information on sexual health and contains podcasts, newsblogs,
and an on-line Question & Answer section. The Kinsey Institute hosts
sexology conferences, lectures, and art exhibits on various aspects of human
sexuality, as well as an extensive library (Kinsey Institute website). The vast
resources listed on the Kinsey Institute website, including their downloadable
broadcasts and question-and-answer sessions work to raise consciousness and
educate the public. The Kinsey Institute library is only accessible for
research by scholars and students and is not open to the general public (Kinsey
Institute website).
Scarleteen: Alternative
Consciousness-Raising
Scarleteen
is an online sex and blog founded in 1998 by Heather Corinna, a feminist
activist and sexuality counselor at the feminist women’s healthcare Center in Yakima, Washington.
The center provides birth control, reproductive health care, and community
education in an alternative setting. The healthCenter is one of only 14 non-for
profit abortion providing feminist health centers in the country (Feminist
Women’s HealthCenter website).
Addressing
teenage questions and concerns regarding sexuality, Scarleteen provides a
wealth of information on a variety of subjects covering teenage sex, birth control,
body image, dating, breaking up, sexual orientation, etc. Scarleteen’s motto is
“Sex ed for the Real World: Inclusive, Comprehensive and Smart Sexuality
Information and Help for Teens and 20s” (Scarleteen website). This utilizes the
Internet to create consciousness-raising in education outside of the usual
structured environment of schools and parents. This is a good alternative for
sex education since most parents themselves are not well educated on the
subject and therefore lacked the scientific knowledge to bestow onto their
children.
Sex Education in Public Schools in Chicago
There
are recent developments in the teaching of sex education in Chicago schools. It has been announced that
sex ed will be taught starting at the kindergarten level with age-appropriate
issues in every subsequent grade. Kindergarten through third grade will learn about inappropriate touching,
fourth-graders about puberty and HIV, fifth-graders about reproduction,
contraception, and prevention of HIV/AIDS and other STI’s. Students will also
be taught about sexual orientation and gender identity although it does not
mention which grades this would start in (Chicago Public Schools website). This
is the result of Chief health officer for Chicago
public schools, Dr. Stephanie Whyte, advocating for more comprehensive sex ed
in schools due to data which demonstrates increased incidence of STI’s in the
population of teens. Teenagers make up about one third of the reported cases of
chlamydia and gonorrhea (Transforming Communities website).
CPS
is framing this curriculum in the context of health and hygiene issues, in
order to avoid the word “sex” which often times results in an overreaction from
religious groups and the conservative movement. This of course hasn’t stopped
the medium from being sensationalistic and framing the argument as exposing sex
to children. A simple Google search reveals dozens of media sources as framing
it in the context of “Sex Ed for Kindergartners?” thus courting controversy
from the general public, which is typical of media to do regarding issues of
sexuality. I had interviewed a principal a Chicago Public School in Chicago in order to find out more about the
upcoming changes in sex education proposed for CPS schools. He stated that he
had not heard anything about this before me mentioning it, and said that he
would ask Mayor Emanuel on their next meeting together (Principle interview).
I
was unable to obtain an interview with a principle or physical education/sex ed
teacher at a public school, so I interviewed Miss Bodemueller, who is a high
school student at a charter school in Chicago.
She had taken sex ed classes in ninth and tenth grades (2011 – 2012). The co-ed
class was taught by the physical education teacher and the course went on for
about three weeks, three times a week, 80 minutes each day. The course covered
STI’s, pregnancy, AIDS/HIV, condom use (demonstrated with a banana), tampon
use, sexual orientation, yet did not cover issues regarding intersex. The
teacher did however state that the teens are welcome to come to her in the
future regarding further questions on sexuality (Miss B, interview).
In
closing, I would like to state that the public knowledge on sexuality in America
is still severely lacking. It never fails to amaze me how full-grown adults who
are even older than me, are blissfully unaware of even the basics of anatomy
and birth control. I should very much like to see a follow-up report on America’s
literacy issues of sexuality conducted with a larger and more demographically
representative sample. My educated guess is that the majority would still fail.
It
is rather sad that we live in such a sexualized society, yet few seem to
understand the basics of sex, gender, and reproduction; sexual illiteracy still
prevails. The recurring theme found throughout the history of sex education in America
is the opposition of the religious right and conservative leaders to any
policies/movements which would educate the public on such issues. With
knowledge comes power, and by limiting knowledge the public has less power to
understand and control rights concerning women’s bodies and reproduction. I
plan to go into sex education, preferably in an alternative setting
environment, as well as work in research and advocacy order to address the innumerous
misperceptions and myths that are pervasive within our society.
Bibliography
American Experience: Kinsey.
Narr. Campbell
Scott. PBS Television. Dvd. 2005
Jones, James H.,
Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life. New York: W.W. Norton &
Company,
1997.
Kinsey, Alfred
C., Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin. Sexual
Behavior in the
Human
Male. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity
Press, 1948.
Kinsey, Alfred
C., Wardell B. Pomeroy, Clyde E. Martin, Paul
Gebhard. Sexual Behavior
in
the Human Female. Philadelphia:
W.B. Saunders, 1953.
Kinsey
Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction website. 10 March
2013.
<
http://www.iub.edu/~kinsey/index.html>
Kinsey Institute
phone interview, Jennifer Bass, Director of Communications, 23 April, 2013
Link, Arthur S.,
Richard L. McCormick, Progressivism, Arlington Heights: Harlen
Davidson,
Inc, 1983.
Melody, M. E.,
Peterson, Linda M., Teaching America about Sex; Marriage Guides and Sex
Manuals from the late Victorians to Dr. Ruth, New York University Press,
New York, 1999
The classic book, “The
Myth of Women’s Masochism,” by Paula J. Caplin (2005, University
of Toronto press) addresses the commonly held societal and psychoanalytic belief that females create
and remain in painful relationships and situations because masochism is perceived
as part of female nature. Caplan, analyzes the historical and psychoanalytical
roots behind this myth. As a clinical and research psychologist, she explores
how women are perceived by society and how women can empower themselves. She wrote
another book entitled “Don’t Blame Mother” which I have not read but which would
also be very interesting in relation to the subject matter of this course.
“The Myth of Women’s Masochism” contributes
greatly to the understanding of how motherhood is perceived in American
society. A common theme in our readings and class discussions were “mother
blame,” as well as physical and emotional suffering of women imposed on them by
society. The medical establishment has imposed pain on women both with
unethical misuse and research on birth control methods as well as the
medicalization and pathology of pregnancy and labor.
Societal
justification for the subordination of women goes back at least as far as the
Old Testament. Religion has often been used as an argument for inequality
between the sexes. The sadistic subjugation of women presented itself in the Old
Testament when Eve is punished by God for giving Adam the apple. “To the woman
He said, I will greatly multiply your pain in childbirth. In pain you shall
bring forth children; yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall
rule over you” (Genesis 3:16, New American Standard Bible, p 2). This only
demonstrates that the subjugation of women has a long history and needs to be
addressed from many different angles, including theological.
In chapter 2: What the “Experts” Have Said,
Caplan discusses what various prominent figures in the fields of medicine,
sexology, and psychoanalysis have said on the subject of masochism. The
pioneering German sexologist Dr. Richard von Krafft-Ebing coined the term
‘masochism’ in his classic work “Psychopathia Sexualis” published in 1886. He
defined masochism and as “the wish to suffer pain and be subjected to force”
(Caplan, 19). The concept that females are masochistic in nature took root when
Freud followed with his writings on female masochism; Caplan states “although
Freud wrote about masochism in both sexes, he explicitly said many times that
masochism is feminine. Even masochistic behavior in a man was labeled feminine
by Freud, so that masochism, which was not considered normal or typical in a
man, was thought to be both in a woman” (Ibid, 20). This, in turn, influenced
psychoanalytical theory which postulated that since motherhood is
self-sacrificing (a mother would sacrifice her own needs in order to meet the
needs of the children), anyone who neglects themselves is masochistic (Ibid,
50).
Chapter 3 “Mothers”
discusses why pregnancy in the modern age is perceived as more masochistic than
in previous eras. If one can avoid pregnancy (which is synonymous with pain)
why not simply avoid it? According to that logic, unplanned pregnancy is a form
of masochism. The work of mothering is considered degrading and low status in
society, and therefore anyone who desires such work is masochistic and has low
self-esteem. Despite the publication of “The Feminine Mystique” by Betty
Friedan, women continue to remain silent for fear of being seen as an
inadequate mother, i.e. not a real woman. Simone de Beauvoir stated that
motherhood is not only natural but “divine”; “given that one can hardly tell
women that washing up saucepans is the divine mission, they are told that
bringing up children is the divine mission” (Ibid, 49).
Caplan delves into
how, beginning in the 1940s, psychoanalytic theory and practice started to
focus on “overanxious” and “overprotective” mothers as the source of various
problematic behaviors and/or developments in their children. Mother blame is
utilized as the cause of everything from antisocial behavior, to developmental
difficulties, criminal behavior. Although psychoanalytic theory has advanced
since then, we still live in the shadow of it. Others are still blamed because
societal expectations of motherhood still focus on unrealistic ideals of
perfection. Women are expected to balance work and child rearing yet have few
resources to help in such matters.
Once the
suburbanization of America
occurred after World War II, women became more isolated and started living
further away from domestic help and female kin who would otherwise have
assisted in child rearing and domestic work. Caplan elaborates on how this
placed an added pressure on women in regards to adhering to the strict gender
code of “the perfect housewife” and “perfect mother.” Psychoanalyst at the time
felt that the woman was unhappy with that situation and she must be a masochist
(Ibid, 60). She also elaborates on the five major types of mother blame that
healthcare professionals and psychologists refer to: information gathering;
attribution of blame to either parent; whether only the mother only the father
was involved in the therapy of the child; and references to previously published
works on mother blaming (Ibid, 52).
In Chapter7:
Women as Victims of Violence, Caplan brings up the important point
surrounding the common misconception of women’s “rape fantasies.” This type of
fantasies interpreted as proof that “women are masochistic in one take force”
(Ibid, 154), when in reality these type of fantasies a less about brutality
more about the desire to be ravaged by someone one is attracted to and wishes
to have sex with, but wishes the other person to make all the sexual advances. “Both
men and women may enjoy occasional rape fantasies without actually desiring to
raped. Men and women raised in the sexually repressive moralistic tradition may
use a rape fantasy because it allows them to fantasize being forced to engage
in and enjoy otherwise forbidden sexual practices” (Francoeur, 537). The
operative term to remember is whether this is consensual or nonconsensual sex.
This book is
eye-opening and provocative in its discussion of the subject. I found it to be
pivotal in my understanding of how women are treated in society and how women
may perceive themselves. The categorization of the chapters and the inclusion
of an index are definitely useful streamlining the data. Inclusion of Kinsey’s
study on male sexual behavior which demonstrated that “sexual masochism” is
much more prevalent among males and females is useful but I wish she had given
specific statistics relating to that.
There are few
things which the book could have expanded on, such as the subject of
sadomasochistic behavior as a larger societal problem. Societal male sadistic
behavior is not limited to mistreating females; numerous examples can be found
in institutionalized behaviors such as male rite of passage rituals throughout
the world in which boys and men are mistreated and abused, humiliated. David
Gilmore’s “Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity” gives an
anthropological view of male rites of passage throughout the world. An almost
universal common thread in this cross-cultural study is the use of brutal pain
and humiliation bestowed upon the boys who must endure these rituals.
Institutionalized sadistic behavior by elders and higher status males to
subjugate younger males of lower status can be found in cultures throughout the
globe. Whipping, beating, harassment, solitary confinement, scarring, and
various other forms of abuse are common rites of passage. Therefore, this is a
wider problem within society, since male abuse of other males is extremely
common, arguably as common as male abuse of females. Examples within American
society are hazing rituals within the military and fraternities. Another
example in American society would be bachelor parties which are an
institutionalized rite of passage ritual which focuses on the humiliation the
soon-to-be bridegroom. This is all part of a hierarchical structure which is
deeply embedded in our modern culture.
The fact that
Caplan is a clinical and research psychologist gave this book a unique perspective
on the subject. The use of prevailing clinical perspectives and viewpoints on
the question of female masochism was tremendously insightful. Her book took the
task of setting the record straight from a psychoanalytical standpoint and I
felt she did splendid job at it. Her central arguments revolved around psychoanalytic
theory and how women were treated through the eyes of mental health
authorities, such as therapists and counselors.
Caplan dissects
the arguments put forward by Freud and other prominent and influential figures
by looking at the use of the word masochism in the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual (DSM). Since the DSM-III-R (third edition revised, published in 1987)
only contains “sexual masochism” as a category and not standalone “masochism”
as a disorder, she is that as an argument against classifying women as
masochistic in a psychoanalytic context. At first the American psychiatric
Association proposed the category of “Masochistic Personality Disorder,” but
since there was no scientific evidence proving that anyone derived pleasure
from suffering, the term was changed to “Self-Defeating Personality
Disorder,” the description of which sounds rather similar to that of “good wife
syndrome,” which entails self-sacrifice to the detriment of one’s own needs
(Ibid, xx).
The
fact that she does bring up rape fantasies is good, unfortunately though she
doesn’t question the colloquial use of such a term and how it may be
misinterpreted. If the Gay & Lesbian community can be officially renamed to
LGBT, then why not officially rename this fantasy from “rape fantasy” to
“ravishment fantasy”? A name change would do a better job of describing the
feelings involved in this sort of fantasy and therefore, help to eliminate the
misperception that women desire to be raped.
Nancy
Friday’s research has revealed that men have the same type of fantasies (Friday,
275). Yet, when men have these types of fantasies they are not called “rape
fantasies.” It is important to ask why this double standard exists.
This book is most
enlightening and I would recommend it as required reading for women in all
walks of life because many of the examples given here are all too familiar in
daily life. I read this book many years ago and I find that the points brought
up here are still fresh in my mind and relevant for various subjects from pair
bond relationships to women in the workplace, and from therapy to body image.
It is an excellent jumping off point for Gender and Women’s Studies students
and contributes much food for thought for years to come.
Bibliography
Caplan, Paula, The Myth of
Women’s Masochism, iUniverse, University
of Toronto, 2005
Holy Bible, New American
Standard, Broadman & Holman publishers, NashvilleTennessee,
1977
Francoeur, Robert, (ed), A
Descriptive Dictionary and Atlas of Sexology, Greenwood Press, New York, 1991
Friday, Nancy,
Men in Love: Men’s Sexual Fantasies: the Triumph of Love Over Rage, Dell
Publishing, New York,
1981
Gilmore, David, Manhood in
Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity, YaleUniversity press, New Haven, CT,
1990
